PE , 

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.33 T introduction 



TO THE STUDY OF 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR: 



ARRANGED 



FOR THE USE OF BEGINNERS 



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W. J. BUENSIDE, A. M., 

PEjyCIPAL OF THE LEBANON HIGH ,< 1 HOOL. 



^^**Km 



LEBANON, Pa.: 

WM. M. BRESLIN, PUBLISHER. 

1870. 



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I LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.! 



$*?• -^ I <TO"9 W J°- • $ 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. J 



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s^>* 



INTRODUCTION 



TO THE STUDY OF 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



ARRANGED 



For the Use of Beginners, 



W. J. BURNSIDE, A. M., 

Principal of the Lebanon High School, 



<-JC 



LEBANON, Pa., 

W>£. M. BTtESLIN, PUBLISHER. 

1870, 



~Vd 



31 



NOTE BY THE AUTHOE. 



The following pages have been prepared in the hope of supply- 
ing, in some measure, a want that has been felt in the Public 
Schools of Lebanon. 

The aim is, to furnish, in a concise and simple form, the rudi- 
ments of English Grammar, disencumbered of the commentary 
and speculation in which they are usually found imbedded ;— to 
furnish for the beginner all that is needed in order to master the 
"Parts of Speech, " to understand the Parsing and Analysis of 
ordinary sentences, and the correction of common errors in 
speaking and writing. 

There is no claim to originality. 

Matter has been appropriated wherever found. The only merit 
for which credit is asked is that of prudent selection. 

The Definitions and Rules have been borrowed, without 
material change, from Brow T n's Grammar, and other standard 
authorities. 

Only a few of the Definitions are new, either in form or sub- 
stance, and these have been tried by practice and not "found 
wanting. " 

In the hope of some favor, on the grounds of brevity, simpli- 
city, and cheapness, this slender volume is offered for trial to my 
fellow teachers. 



Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by Wm, M. 

Breslin, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United 

States, in and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 



Price 30 Cents. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. What is the use of Language ? 
To express our thoughts. 

2. In what two different ways can we express our thoughts ? 
By speaking, and by writing. 

3. In what two ways can we learn the thoughts of others ? 
By hearing them speak, and by reading their writings, 

4. What is Grammar? 

Grammar is the science of Language. 

5. What does Grammar teach us ? 
To speak and write correctly. 

6. What is English Grammar? 

English Grammar is the art of speaking, reading, and writing 
the English language correctly. 

7. How is English Grammar divided ? 

Into four parts: — Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and 
Prosody. 

8. Of what does Orthography treat ? 
Orthography treats of Letters. 

9. Of what does Etymology treat ? 
Etymology treats of Words. 

10. Of what does Syntax treat ? 
Syntax treats of Sentences. 

11. Of what does Prosody treat ? 
Prosody treats of Poetry. 



4 ORTHOGKAPHY. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

1. When children begin to use books, what do they generally learn 
first ? 

Letters. 

2. How many Letters are there in English ? 
Twenty-six. 

3. What are these Letters designed to represent ? 
The simplest sounds we can make in speaking. 

4. How many simple sounds may be heard in our language ? 
More than forty. 

5. How can we represent forty sounds with only twenty-six Letters? 
Some of the Letters stand for more than one sound. 

6. Are all of the simple sounds represented by single Letters ? 
Simple sounds are sometimes represented by two Letters ; as, 

th in think. 

7. Which is the first Letter of the Alphabet ? a. 

8. The second ? 6. 

9. Spell the name of this Letter ] 
B-e, be. 

10. Can you spell a in the same manner ? 
We can not. 

11. Why not? 

Because the name of the Letter a is a simple sound. 

12. How many Letters of this kind does the alphabet contain ? 
Five :— a, e, i, o, u. 

13. What are these Letters called ? 
Vowels. 

14. What other Letters are sometimes used as vowels ! 
IT and y. 

15. What are the Letters called which are not vowels ? 
Consonants. 

16. What is the meaning of Consonant ? 
Sounding in company. 

17. Why are the Consonants so called ? 

Because they cannot be perfectly sounded unless joined to a 
Vowel. 

18. How are the consonants divided ? 
Into Semi-vowels and Mutes. 

19. What is the meaning of Semi-vowel ? 
Half vowel, or half vocal. 

20. What is a Semi- vowel ? 

A Semi-vowel has an imperfect vocal sound which can be pro- 
longed at the end of a syllable ; as, roar, pea£. 



UNGLISft GRAMMAR. § 

21. What is a Mute? 

A Mute is a letter which has no vocal sound, and which at the 
end of a syllable suddenly stops the breath; as, stop, qui*. 

22. When letters are joined or written together properly, what do 
they form ? 

Words or Syllables. 

23. What is a Syllable? 

A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one sound — 
and is either a word or part of a word ; as, a, an, can. 

24. What must every Syllable contain ? 
A Vowel. 

25. When two vowels are joined in one syllable, what do they form ? 
A Diphthong. 

26. When three vowels are joined ? 
A Triphthong. 

27. What is a Word? 

A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign 
of some idea, or manner of thought. 

28. What is a word of one syllable called ? 
A Monosyllable. 

29. A word of two syllables ? 
A Dissyllable. 

30. Of three syllables ? 
A Trisyllable. 

31. What term is generally applied to words of more than one 
syllable ? 

Polysyllable. 

32. What is a Primitive Word ? 

A Primitive Word is one that is not formed from any simpler 
word in the language ; as, man, good. 

33. What is a Derivative word ? 

A Derivative word is one that is formed from a simpler word 
in the language ; as, manful, goodness. 

34. What is a Simple word ? 

A Simple word is one that is not compounded. 
&5. What is a Compound word ? 

^ A Compound word is one that is composed of two or more 
simple words ; as, gentleman, jack-knife. 

36. What is Spelling? 

Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters. 

37. How is spelling generally learned ? 
From spelling-books and dictionaries. 

38. What is that part of grammar called, which treats of spelling ? 
Orthography. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

1. How does Etymology treat of Words % 

It divides them into classes, according to their use and meaning. 

2. What are these classes called 1 
Parts of Speech. 

3. How many parts of speech are there in English— and what are 
they? 

Ten : — The Noun, Article, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Partici- 
ple, Adverb, Conjunction, Preposition, and Interjection. 

4. Do these classes include all words ? 

Every word in the English language must belong to one of 
these ten parts of speech. 

5. Define each. 

I. A Noun is the name of anything ; as, Sarah, river, Virtue. 

II. An Article is the word a or an or the, which we put before 
nouns to limit their meaning ; as, a name, the king. 

' III. An Adjective is a word that relates to a noun or pronoun 
and generally expresses quality, extent or limitation ; as, good 
boys, two men, He is tall. 

IV. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, If James 
be careful, he will succeed. 

V. A Verb is a word used to express action or being ; as, He 
loves, He is loved, He is. 

VI. A Participle is a form of the verb, which has also the 
properties of an adjective, or of a noun ; as, I saw a bird sitting 
on the tree. 

VII. An Adverb is a word used to qualify or vary the mean- 
ing of a verb, a participle, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, 
Jane studies very diligently. 

VIII. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, 
or sentences ; as, Two and three are five ; Did he go into the house 
or into the barn ? 

IX. A Preposition is a word which is generally placed before 
a noun or pronoun to show its relation to some preceding word ; 
as, James works in the mill. 

X. An Interjection is a word used to express a strong or sud- 
den emotion of the mind ; as, Oh ! Pshaw ! 



ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 7 

NOUNS. 

1. What is a Noun ? 

A Noun is the name of anything. 

2. George is the name of a boy— is George a noun ? and why 1 
George is a noun because it is a name. 

3. What kind of a name 
The name of a person. 

4. Of what is the word horse a name ? 
Horse is the name of an animal. 

5. Of what is goodness a name 
Goodness is the name of a quality. 

6. Mention two nouns the names of persons ? 

7. Two, the names of w^ild animals ? 

8. Two, the names of places ? 

9. Two, of things in the school-room? 

10. Two, the names of qualities? 

11. One, of a bad quality ? 

COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. 

12. What is the meaning of the word common ? 
Common means general, belonging to more than one. 

13. The name boy may be applied to any male child— what kind of a 
name may it be called ? 

A Common name. 

14. Why is it a common name ? 

Because it may be applied to any or all of a class or kind. 

15. What kind of a noun shall we call boy f 
A Common noun. 

16. What is a Common noun ] 

A Common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings 
or things. 

17. How can we distinguish a particular boy ? 

By using his own name ; as, George, William, Henry Martin. 

18. What is such a name called ? 
A Proper name. 

19. What kind of a noun may we call George ? 
A Proper noun. 

20. What kind of a noun is Peter ? and why ? 

Peter is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular 
person. 

21. What kind of a noun is Lebanon ? and why ? 

Lebanon is a proper noun because it is the name of a particular 
place. 

22. Into what general classes may nouns be divided 
Into two classes : — Common and Proper. 



8 ETYMOLOGY. 

PROPERTIES OP NOUNS. 

23. What properties have nouns in grammar ? 
Four : — Person, Number, Gender and Case. 

PERSON. 

24. How many Persons have nouns ? 

Three persons : — the first, second and third. 

25. What is the first person ? 

The first person denotes the speaker or writer ; as, I John 
saw it. 

26. What is the second person ? 

The second person denotes the person or thing spoken to or ad- 
dressed ; as, James, come to me ; Give ear, O, Earth. 

27. What is the third person ? 

The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of; as 
James has come ; Mary goes to school. 

NUMBER. 

28. What is meant by Number ? 
Number indicates how many. 

29. How is the term Number used in grammar 1 

To denote whether one thing is meant, or more than one. 
30 How many numbers have nouns ? 
Two : — the Singular and the Plural. 

31. What is the singular number ? 

The Singular number denotes but one thing ; as, boy, hook. 

32. What is the plural number ! 

The Plural number denotes more than one ; as, boys, fishes, men. 

33. How is the plural number of nouns usually formed ? 

By adding s, or es to the singular ; as, boy, boys ; box, boxes. 

34. When the singular ends in y with a consonant before it, how is 
the plural formed ? 

By changing y into ies ; as, city, cities. 

35. Name a noun that does not form its plural regularly? 
"Man." 

36. What is the plural of man ? men. 37. Of woman ? women. 38. 
Child ? children. 39. Yootl feet. 40. Tooth? teeth. 41. Ox? oxen. 42. 
Goose? geese. 

GENDER. 

43. What does the Word Gender mean ? 
Gender means sex. 

44. What is meant by gender in grammar ? 

Gender is that property of nouns which distinguishes them in 
regard to sex. 

45. How many sexes are there ? 

Two :— male and female. 



ENGLISH GKAjiMAIt. i) 

16. What does the word Masculine mean ? 

Masculine means male. 
47. What is the Masculine Gender ? 

The Masculine Gender denotes beings of the male sex ; as, 
man, king, James, 
IS. What does Feminine mean ! 

Feminine means female. 
19. What is the Feminine Gender ! 

The Feminine Gender denotes beings of the female sex ; as, 
wo man, Jane, actress. 

50. What does the word Neuter mean ! 
Neuter means neither. 

51. What nouns are said to be of the Neuter Gender ] 

The names of objects that are neither male nor female — that is, 
without sex ; as, book, desk, courage. 

52. Of what Gender is child ? 

It may be either Masculine or Feminine. 

53. Of what Gender then may we call child ? 
Common Gender. 

54. What names may be considered of the Common Gender ? 
Names that may denote either male or female, or may include 

both ; as, parent, bird, sheep. 

55. In how many ways may the sexes be distinguished ? 

In three ways. 

56. What is the first 1 

By different words ; as, boy, girl. 

57. What is the second ? 

By a change of termination ; as, actor, actress ; god, goddess. 

58. What is the third ] 

By a word prefixed ; as, man-seTY&nt m^^-servant. 

59. When objects without sex are spoken of as masculine or femi- 
nine, what is this manner of speaking called ? 

A Figure of Speech. 

60. What objects are made masculine in this way ? 

Things noted for power, strength or fierceness ; as, the Sun, 
Winter, War, Time. 

61. What kind of objects are made feminine ? 

Things beautiful, amiable or receptive ; as, the Moon, Peace, the 
Earth. 

62. Give examples ! 

"As when the sun shineth in his strength." 
"The moon shed her pale light upon the scene." 



iO ETYMOLOGY. 

CASE. 

63. What does the word Case mean ! 

Case means situation or condition. 
(H. What is meant by the Case of nouns 1 

The relations which they have to other words. 

65. How many Cases have nouns ? 

Three; The Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective. 

66. What is the Nominative Case ? 

The Nominative Case is that which usually denotes the subjcet 
of a verb ; as, John runs. 

67. What is the subject of a verb ? 

The subject is that concerning which an assertion or a supposi- 
tion is made ; as, James struck William ; If William be struck. 

63. Under what other circumstances is a noun said to be in the 
Nominative Case? 

The name of a person or thing addressed, and a name merely 
mentioned are in the Nominative Case ; as, James, come to me ; 
Henry the Eighth. 

60. What is the Possessive Case? 

The Possessive Case is that which usually denotes the relation 
of property ; as, John's hat ; Children's shoes ; Wisdom's ways. 

70. How do nouns in the singular number form their possessive 
case ? 

By placing an apostrophe and the letter s after the nominative. 

71. When the plural ends regularly in s, how is the possessive form- 
ed ? 

By adding the apostrophe only. 

72. If the plural does not end in s. how is the possessive formed? 
Tn the same way as the singular, by adding the apostrophe and 

the letter s. 

73. What is the Objective Case ? 

The Objective Case is that which denotes the object of an ac- 
tion, or relation ; as, He struck William ; Mary was writing a 
letter ; John fell into the water. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

Singular, Plural, 

Norn. Man, Nom. Men, 
Poss. Man's, Poss. Men's, 
Obj. Man ; Obj. Men. 



John broke Mary's slate. 
John is a noun— it is a name, proper— it denotes a particular name, 
masculine gender— it as the name of a male, third person— it denotes 
the person spoken of, singular number— it means but one ; and in the 
nominative case— it is the subject. 



Singular, 
Nominative, Boy, Nom. 
Possessive, Boy's, Poss. 
Objective, Boy ; Obj. 


Plural, 
Boys, 
Boys', 
Boys. 




PARSING. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11 

Mary's is a noun— it is a name, proper— it denotes a particular 
name, feminine gender— it is the name of a female, third person— it is 
the person spoken of, singular number— it means but one, and in the 
possessive case — it denotes possession. 

Slate is a noun— it is a name, common— it is a general name, neuter 
gender— it is neither male nor female, third person— it is spoken of, 
singular number— it means but one, and in the objective case— it is the 
object of an action. 

Children obey your parents. 

Children is a noun— it is a name, common— it is a general name, 
common gender— it may include male and female, second person — it 
denotes the person spoken to, plural number— it means more than 
one, and in the nominative case— it is the name of the person address- 
ed. 

The books are in the desk. 

Desk is a noun— it is a name, common— it is a general name, neuter 
gender— it denotes neither male nor female, third person— it is spoken 
of, singular number— it means but one, and in the objective ease— it is 
the object of a relation, (denoted by in.) 

I, John, saw it. 

John is a noun— it is a name, proper— it is a particular- name, mascu- 
line gender— it is the name of a male., first person — it denotes the 
speaker, singular number— it means but one, and in the nominative 
case— it is the name of the subject. 
{First point out the Nouns in the following sentences, and then parse them.) 

Boys love sport. James broke the ice. Mary Smith reads novels. 
The peaches are ripe. The ice is broken. The moon shines by night. 
The merchant sells ladies' gloves. Men eat bread. Lions eat men. 
Mary's flowers are beautiful. Our Father, who art in heaven. I Paul 
myself beseech you. We, teachers of the public schools. Sarah, come 
to dinner. P^agles build their nests on rocks. A cat in gloves catches 
no mice. 



ARTICLES. 

1. When I say, "Bring me cake," I designate only the kind of food 
I wish : if I say, "Bring me a cake," I limit the request to one cake, 
but not any particular one ; but if I say, "Bring me the cake," I am 
understood to speak of some particular cake— before spoken of— or 
known to the person addressed. 

Which are the words that make the difference in meaning ? 
A and the. 

2. What office do these words perform ] 
They limit the meaning of nouns. 

3. What are the words a and the called in grammar 1 
Articles. 

4. What then are Articles ] 

Articles are the words a or an and the^ put before nouns to 
limit their meaning. 

5. When do we use an instead of a 1 

Before words beginning with the sound of a vowel ; as an apple, 
an hour. 



i2 feTYMoibbt. 

6. How many Articles are there] 
Two ; a or an, and the. 

7. How are the two Articles distinguished 1 

A or an is called the Indefinite Article ; the is called the Defi- 
nite Article. 

8. Define the Indefinite Article 1 

The Indefinite Article, a or an, denotes one thing of a kind, 
but not any particular one. 

9. Define the Definite Article 1 

The Definite Article, the, denotes some particular thing or 
things. 

PARSING. 

The boys found a shelter. 

The is an article— a word placed before nouns to limit their meaning, 
definite— it denotes some particular boys, and relates to boys. 

A is an article— a word placed before nouns to limit their meaning, 
indefinite— it does not denote any particular shelter, and relates to 
shelter. 

(Parse the articles in the following sentences.) 

A man. A railroad. An eagle. An hour. The boys' hats. The 
road to Lebanon. The books are in the desk. A boy fell into the 
river. The men are in the field. The boy ran a mile. He brought a 
book, but not the book I wanted. 



ADJECTIVES. 

1. When I say, "John is a good boy," which word tells what kind of 
a boy John is 1 

The word good. 

2. The apples are sour, which word expresses the quality of the 
apples 1 

The word sour. 

3. What are such describing words called in grammar 7 
Adjectives. 

4. A few men, some men, one man,— what do these adjectives 
express ? 

Limitation. 

5. What is an Adjective ? 

An Adjective is a word that relates to a noun or pronoun and 
generally expresses quality, extent, or limitation. 

6. Into what general classes may adjectives be divided 1 

Into six classes— Common, Proper, Numeral, Pronominal, Par- 
ticipial and Compound. 

7. What is a Proper adjective 1 

It is one that is formed from a proper name ; as, Grecian. 

8. What is a Numeral adjective % 

It is one that expresses a definite number ; as, one, twenty, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 13 

9. What is a Pronominal adjective 1 

It is one that may be either joined to a noun expressed, or rep- 
resent it understood ; as, Either road is safe ; Either of them will 
answer. 

10. What is a Participial adjective ? 

It is one that has the form of a participle ; as, a learned man ; 
a pleasing story. 

11. What is a Compound adjective 1 

It is one that is composed of two or more words joined 
together ; as, everlasting, tico-Maded. 

12. What modification have adjectives t 
Comparison. 

13. What is Comparison 1 

Comparison is a variation of the adjective to express quality in 
different degrees. 

14. How many Degrees of Comparison are there ] 

Three : — The Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 

15. What is the Positive Degree 1 

The Positive Degree is that which is expressed by the Adjective 
in its simple form ; as, wise, good. 

16. What is the Comparative Degree ? 

The Comparative Degree is that which expresses a higher or 
lower degree of a quality in one object as compared with another ; 
as, Flint is harder than marble. 

17. What is the Superlative degree ? 

The Superlative degree is that which expresses the quality in 
the highest or lowest degree ; as, Khode Island is the smallest of 
the United States. 

18. Name some adjectives that cannot be compared ? 
Round, square, dead, immortal. 

19. How are adjectives regularly compared \ 

By adding to the positive r or er for the comparative, and st or 
est for the superlative ; as, sweet, sweeter, sioeetest ; pale, paler, 



20. What adjectives are compared in this way % 

Most monosyllables and dissyllables ending in y or e mute ; as, 
great, pretty. 

21. How are words of more than one syllable generally compared? 
By placing more and most before the Positive ; as, beautiful, 

more beautiful, most beautiful. 

22. Compare the" irregular adjectives ? 

Positive, Comparative, Superlative, 
Good, better, best. 

Bad or ill, worse, worst. 

Much or many, more, most. 

Little, less, least. 



14 ETYMOLOGY. 

23. When is ah" adjective used as a noun ? 

When it is placed without a noun, with the definite article be- 
fore it ; as, The rich and the poor meet together. 

EXAMPLES FOK PARSING. 

A great man. 
Great is an adjective — it relates to a noun and expresses qual- 
ity, compared, positive great; comparative greater; superlative 
greatest; made in the positive degree and relates to the noun 
man. 

< The best scholar. 
Best is an adjective— it relates to a noun and expresses quality, 
compared, positive good; comparative better; superlative best ; 
made in the superlative degree— it expresses the quality in the 
highest degree, and relates to the noun scholar. 
A more difficult method. 
Difficult is an adjective — it relates to a noun and expresses qual- 
ity, compared, positive difficult; comparative more difficult; 
superlative most difficult; made in the comparative degree — it 
implies a comparison between two, and relates to the noun 
method. 

This book is yours. 

This is an adjective — it relates to a noun and expresses limita- 
tion, pronominal — it may be joined to a noun or represent it un- 
derstood, it cannot be compared, and it relates to the noun book. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

An idle boy. A dark passage. The longest day. A geater 
multitude. The golden calf. A long journey. The wisest king. 
The oldest inhabitant. The drunkard's daughter. The early 
train. A late arrival. 



PRONOUNS. 

1. If John be studious, John will improve,— How can I express the 
same meaning without repeating the word John ] 

By using the word he instead of John — If John be studious, he 
will improve. 

2. What does the word Pronoun mean ? 
Standing for or instead of a noun. 

3. What shall we call such words as he? 
Pronouns. 

4. What is a Pronoun ] 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

5. Henry and his brother lost their books, which are the Pronouns 
in this sentence] 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



15 



t>. How would you express this without Pronoun-? 
Henry and Henry's brother lost Henry's and Henry's brother's 
books. 

7. Would it be proper to say, "If Mar}' be studious, he will excel !" 

8. Why not \ 

Because Mary is a noun of the feminine gender, and he is mas- 
culine. 

9. In what resp33ts must the Pronoun agree with the word for 
which it stands ? 

In person, number and gender. 

10. Into what classes may Pronouns be divided ? 

Into three classes :— Personal, Relative, and Interrogative. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

11. What is a Personal pronoun ] 

A Personal pronoun is one that is always of the same person. 

12. Which are the Simple Personal pronouns ? 

i", thou or you, he, she, and it, with their variations. 

13. Which are the Compound Personal pronouns ! 

Myself, thyself or yourself himself , herself and itself, with 
their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. 

14. How are the Pronouns tJwu and thyself used ? 

Only in the solemn style ; they are not used in ordinary con- 
versation. 
1~>. By what writers are they used ? 
By the sacred writers, and the poets. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS* 

16. What is a Relative Pronoun ? 

A Relative Pronoun is one that represents a preceding word or 
phrase and connects the parts of a sentence ; as, Here is the knife 
which I found. 

17. What is the preceding word called, to which the pronoun relates ? 
The antecedent. 

18. What is the meaning of antecedent \ 
Going before. 

19. Why is the antecedent of a pronoun so called ] 
Because it is generally expressed before the Relative. 

20. Which are the Relative Pronouns ? 

Who, which, what, and that; and the compounds, whoever, 
whosoever ; whichever, whichsoever ; whatever, whatsoever. 

21. What peculiarity has the Relative what ? 

What is a kind of double pronoun, representing both an ante- 
cedent and a relative, and is equivalent to that which, or those 
which; as, You heard wJuU was said— that is, You heard that 
which was said. 



16 ETYMOLOGY. 

22. How are the Coin pound pronouns used ? 

They are sometime? double pronouns, like what ; and they are 
sometimes joined to nouns as adjectives. 

23. Which of the relatives are used as pronominal adjectives ? 

All except who and its compounds ; as, Which way did lie go ? 
Whatever fate be mine. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

21. What is an Interrogative Pronoun ? 

An Interrogative Pronoun is one with which a question is 
asked ; as, Who goes there ? 

25. Which are the Interrogative Pronouns ? 
Who, which, and what 

26. What modifications have pronouns? 

The same as nouns : — Person, Number, Gender, and Case. 

DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 

27. I, of the first person ? 

Singular, Nominative, 1, Plural, Nom. We, 

" Possessive, My or mine, 4 * Poss. Our, or Ours, 

" Objective, Me ; 44 Obj. Us. 

28. 27tow or g/ow, of the second person ? 

Singular, Singular, Plural, 

Nom. Thou, ^ C Nom. You, Nom. Ye or y^?/, 

Poss. 27^ or thine, > or < Poss. Fmror yaws, Poss. Timr or yours, 
Obj. 77^; ) (Obj. You; Obj. Fat*. 

29. Jie, of the third person, masculine gender? 
Singular, Nominative, He, Plural, Nom. They, 

44 Possessive, His, " Poss. Their or theirs, 

" Objective, JSray " Obj. TV^m. 

30. £7*e, of the third person, feminine gender? 
Singular, Nominative, She, Plural, Nom. They, 

44 Possessive, Her or hers, 44 Poss. Their or theirs, 
44 Objective, J2er; 44 Obj. 2%m. 

31. It, of the third person, neuter gender ? 

Singular, Nominative, It, Plural, Nom. They, 

44 Possessive, Its, 44 Poss. Their or theirs, 

44 Objective, iZ; 44 Obj. Them. 

32. How are the Compound Personal pronouns declined ? 

They all want the possessive case, and they are alike in the 
nominative and objective. 

83. Decline Who \ 
Singular, Nominative, Who, Plural, Nom. Who, 

44 Possessive, Whose, 44 Poss. Wliose, 

44 Objective, Whom; 44 Obj. Whom. 

o\. Are the Relatives which, what and that declined ? 
They are not, except that ichose is sometimes used as the pos- 
sessive case of which. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17 

85. How is the Compound whoever or whosoever declined ? 
Like the simple pronoun — Kom. Whosoever, Poss. Whosesoever, 
Obj. Whomsoever; &c. 

EXAMPLES IN PAKSIXG. 

Here are the pens which Henry found. 
Which is a pronoun — a word used instead of a noun, relative — 
it relates to a preceding word and also connects the clauses ; of 
the third person, plural number, and neuter gender — to agree 
with its antecedent pens ; and in the objective case — it denotes the 
object of an action. 

We haze lost the icay. 
We is a pronoun — a word used instead of a noun, personal — it 
is always of the same person ; first person it represents the 
speaker, plural number — it denotes more than one, common 
gender — it may include male and female, in the nominative case- 
it is the subject. 

Annie, you are naughty. 
You is a pronoun — a word used instead of a noun, personal — 
it is always of the same person ; of the second person, singular 
number, and feminine gender — to agree with the noun Annie 
w T hich it represents, and in the nominative case— it denotes the 
subject. 

exercises.— {Parse the Pronouns.) 

John lost his knife. Boys, attend to your lessons. The man 
who laughs. You will hurt yourself. We are ready. He could 
not find us. Our Father, tcho art in heaven. Are you tired ? 
The pen icliich I found is broken. I Paul myself beseech you. 
James, study your lesson. 



VERBS. 

1. What is a Verb] 

A Verb is a word that expresses action or being ; as, James 
loves William ; Peter walks ; Henry is struck ; You are fortunate. 

2. When I say, "John strikes James," which word tells what John 
does 1 

The word strikes. 

3. What part of speech is strikes ] 
A Verb. 

4. Why is strikes a Verb ] 
Because it expresses action. 

5. In what case is John 1 
In the Nominative case. 

0. Why is John in the Nominative case ? 
Because John is the subject, or leading word. 



18 ETYMOLOGY. 

7. What kind of a Verb is strikes 1 
An Active Verb. 

8. Why is it called Active ? 

Because it expresses the action of its subject. 

9. What is an Active Verb ? 

An Active Verb is one that expresses the action of its subject 
or nominative. 
] 0. What is the subject or an Active Verb ? 
The actor or doer. 

1 3 . John strikes James,— In what case is James ] 
In the objective case. 

12. Why is James in the objective case ] 
Because James is the object of the action. 

13. Susan found a penny. — Which word is the object 1 

14. She smiled sweetly. — Is there any object in this sentence ] 

15. Can you put an object after smiled and make sense] 

16. What are those verbs called that take nouns or pronouns after 
them as objects] 

Transitive verbs. 

17. What is a Transitive verb ? 

A Transitive verb is one that will admit a noun or pronoun as 
an object ; as, Mary broke her slate ; He struck me. 

18. How may a Transitive verb be known ! 

If we can place him or it after the verb and make sense, it is 
generally Transitive ; as, I love him ; He found it. 

19. What is an Intransitive verb 1 

An Intransitive verb is one that expresses action, but will not 
admit an object after it ; as, John loalks ; They laughed aloud. 

20. Instead of saying "John struck James," I can express the same 
meaning by saying, "James was struck by John;"— which is the verb 
in the latter sentence? 

Was struck. 

21. In what case is James ] 
In the Nominative case. 

22. Why is James in the Nominative ca^e ? 
Because James is the subject or leading word. 

23. What is the subject of a verb ? 

21. Does the verb was struck express act ion ? 

It docs. 
25. Is James the actor ] 

He is not. 
23. What does the verb express in regard to its nominative, James ? 

That he is affected by the action. 
27. What kind of a, verb do we call was struck ] 

A Passive Verb. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 ( J 

28. What is a Passive Verb ? 

A Passive Verb is one that represents its subject as being 
affected by the action ; as, John is beaten; The trees are shaken 
by the wind. 

29. What Is the distinction between the Active and Passive nature 
of verbs called in grammar 1 

Voice. 

30. How many Voices have Verbs 1 

Two :— - The Active Voice and the Passive Voice. 

31. He remains at home.— Which word is the verb ? 
Remains. 

32. Is this verb active or passive ? 
It is neither active nor passive. 

33. What kind of a verb, then, shall we call remains ? 
A Neuter verb. . 

34. What is a Neuter verb ? 

A .Neuter verb is one that is neither active nor passive— but ex- 
presses being, state, or life without action ; as, He is ; She 
sleeps; John sits. 

35. Into what classes may verbs be divided according to their 
meaning? 

Into Active Transitive, Active Intransitive, Passive and 
Neuter. 

33. What modifications or changes have verbs ? 

Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. 

37. What is meant by the Mood of a Verb 1 

Mood or Mode is the manner in which the action or being is 
expressed. 

33. How maii3 T Moods have verbs ? 

There are five Moods :— The Indicative, the Potential, the 
Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. 

39. What is the Indicative Mood ] 

The Indicative Mood is that form of the verb which asserts or 
declares a thing, or asks a question ; as, John walks ; Does John 
write t 

40. What is the Potential Mood ? 

The Potential Mood is that form of the verb which expresses 
power, liberty, possibility or necessity ; as, I can go ; We must 
wait. 

41. What is the Subjunctive Mood ? 

The Subjunctive Mood expresses the action or being as condi- 
tional or doubtful ; as, If he come, I will consent to stay. 

42. What is the Imperative Mood ? 

The Imperative Mood is that form of the verb which is used for 
commanding, exhorting, entreating or permitting ; as, Lore your 
enemies ; Go in peace ; John, conu to me. 



20 ETYMOLOGY. 

43. What is the Infinitive Mood 1 

The Infinitive Mood is that form of the verb which expresses 
action or being not limited to a subject in person or number ; as, 
They ought to study. 

44. What are all verbs called that are not in the Infinitive Mood? 
Finite verbs. 

45. What is Tense 1 

Tense is the variation of the verb to express the time of the 
action or being. 

40. How many Tenses has the indicative mood 1 

The indicative mood has six Tenses : — The Present, the Im- 
perfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First Future, and the 
Second Future. 

47. What is the Present Tense ? 

The Present Tense is that form of the verb which expresses 
what takes place or is occurring in the present time ; as, I see 
him now ; The Sun is setting. 

48. What is the Imperfect Tense ? 

The Imperfect Tense is that form of the verb which expresses 
what took place or was occurring in time fully past ; as, I saw him 
yesterday. 

49. What is the Perfect Tense ? 

The Perfect Tense is that form of the verb which expresses 
what has occurred, with some relation to present time ; as, I have 
seen him this morning ; I have always found it so. 

50. What is the Pluperfect Tense 1 

The Pluperfect Tense is that form of the verb which expresses 
what had taken place at or before some past time referred to ; as, 
I had finished my work, before my father came. 

51. What is the First Future Tense ? 

The First Future Tense is that form of the verb which ex- 
presses what will take place hereafter ; as, He will come to- 
morrow. 

52. What is the Second Future Tense ? 

The Second Future Tense is that form of the verb which ex- 
presses what will have taken place at or before some future time 
referred to ; as, I shall have finished my letter before the mail 
closes. 

53. How many Tenses has the potential mood 1 

The Potential Mood has four Tenses :— The Present, the Im- 
perfect, the Perfect, and the Pluperfect. 
51. Which of these Tenses sometimes relate to future time 1 

The Present and the Perfect. 

5 j. What time is expressed by the Imperfect Tense of the potential 
mood? 
Indefinite time. 



EtfGLlSlt GUAMMAK. SI 

56. How many Tenses lias the subjunctive mood f 

The subjunctive mood lias two Tenses :— The Present, and the 
Imperfect. 

57. What is generally expressed by the Subjunctive Present 7 

A condition on which a result depends ; as, If he be studious, 
he will excel. 

58. What time is expressed by the Subjunctive Imperfect ? 
Indefinite time. 

50. How many Tenses has the imperative mood ? 

The imperative mood has one Tense : — The Present. 
&). What time is generally referred to ? 

Future time ; as, Come again, to-morrow. 

61. How many Tenses has the infinitive mood ? 

The infinitive mood has two Tenses : — The Present, and the 
Perfect. 

PARTICIPLES. 

62. What is a Participle ? 

A Participle is a form of the verb which has also the properties 
of an adjective, or of a noun ; as, I saw men working in the field ; 
He made a fortune by selling oranges. 

63. How many Participles are there ? 

Three :— The Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Preperfect. 
6 \ . What is the Imperfect Participle ? 

The Imperfect Participle implies that the action or being is 
going on but not completed at the time referred to ; as, I saw 
Mark playing in the street. 

65. What is the Perfect Participle ? 

The Perfect Participle implies a completion of the action or 
being ; as, A house divided against itself can not stand. 

66. What is the Preperfect Participle ] 

The Preperfect Participle implies the previous completion of 
the action or being ; as, Having given this answer, he departed. 

67. What is the Conjugation of a Verb ? 

The Conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of its 
moods, tenses, persons, and numbers, and its participles. 
6S. What are the Principal Parts in the Conjugation of a verb ? 

The Present, the Preterit, the Imperfect Participle, and the 
Perfect Participle. 

69. Why are these called Principal Parts ? 

Because one of these Parts is found in every modification of the 
verb. 

70. What is meant by the Preterit 1 

The Preterit is the simple form of the imperfect tense ; as, 
John died ; They came. 



£2 ETYMOLOGY. 

71. What are the principal parts of the verb love ] 

Present, love; Preterit, loved; Imperfect Participle, loving; 
Perfect Participle, loved. 

72. Of the verb boil ] 

Present, boil; Pret., boiled; Imp. Part., boiling ; Perf. Part., 
boiled. 

73. Of the' verb see ] 
See, saw, seeing, seen. 

74. Of the verb be ? 
Be, was, being, been. 

75. Of the verb keep ? 
Keep, kept, keeping, kept. 

76. How are verbs divided in respect to form ? 

Into Regular, Irregular, Redundant, and Defective. 

77. What is a Regular Verb 1 

A Regular Verb is one that forms the Preterit and the Perfect 
Participle by adding d to final e, and ed to other terminations of 
the present ; as, love, loved, loved ; call, called, called. 

78. What is an Irregular Verb 1 

An Irregular Verb is one that does not form the preterit and 
the perfect participles by adding d to final e, or ed to other ter- 
minations of the present ; as, break, broke, broken. 

79. What is a Redundant Verb ? 

A Redundant Verb is one that forms the preterit and the per- 
fect participle, (or one of them,) in two or more ways, so as to 
be either regular or irregular ; as, clothe, clothed or clad, clothed 
or clad. 

80. What is a Defective Verb 1 

A Defective Verb is one that wants one or more of the princi- 
pal parts, and is used in only a few of the moods and tenses ; as, 
ought, quoth, beware. 

81. What does the word Auxiliary mean 1 
Auxiliary means helping. 

82. What is an Auxiliary Verb ? 

An Auxiliary verb is one that is prefixed to the principal parts 
of another verb, to form some of the moods and tenses ; as, -We 
can go ; They will have come. 

83. Which are the Auxiliary Verbs 1 

Do, be, have, will, may, can, must, and their variations. 

84. Which of tho tenses of the indicative mood are formed by the 
use of Auxiliary Verbs ? 

All except the present and the imperfect ; and these sometimes 
have auxiliaries also. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23 

85. What auxiliary is used to form the perfect tense of the indica- 
tive mood? 

Have. 

86. The pluperfect 1 
Had. 

87. The first future ! 
Shall or will. 

88. The second future 7 
Shall have, or will have. 

89. The present tense of the potential mood 1 
May, can, or must. 

90. The imperfect ? 

Might, could, would, or should. 

91. The perfect 1 

May have, can have, or must have. 

92. The pluperfect ? 

Might have, could have, would have, or should have. 

Conjugation of the verb Love in the Active Voice. 

FAMILIAR STYLE. 

93. Principal Parts. 

Present, love; Preterit, loved; Imperfect Participle, loving ; 
Perfect Participle, loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

9i. Present Tense. 

Singular, 1st. Person, I love, Plural, 1st. Person, We love, 

14 2d. Person, You love, " 2d. Person, You love, 

" 3d. Person, He loves ; " 3d. Person, They love. 
9o. Or, (emphatic,) 

Singular, 1. I do love, Plural, 1. We do love, 

" 2. You do love, " 2. You do love, 

" 3. He does love ; " 3. They do love. 

96. Imperfect Tense. 

Singular, 1. I loved, Plural, 1. We loved, 

2. You loved, " 2. You loved, 

" 3. He loved; " 3. They loved. 

97. Or, (Emphatic,) 

Singular, 1. 1 did love, Plural, 1. We did love, 

44 2. You did love, " 2. You did love, 

44 3. He did love ; " 3. They did love. 

98. Perfect Tense. 

Singular, 1. I have loved, Plural, 1. We have loved, 

" 2. You have loved, u 2. You have loved, 
44 3. He has loved ; 44 3. They have loved. 



24 ETYMOLOGY. 

99. Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular, 1. I bad loved, Plural, 1. We had loved, 

2. You had loved, " 2. You had loved, 

" 3. He had loved; " 3. They had loved* 

100. First Future Tense. 

Sing., 1. I shall or will love, Plu., 1. We shall or will love, 
" 2. You shall or will love, " 2. You shall or will love, 
" 3. He shall or will love ; " 3. They shall or will love. 

101. Second Future Tense. 

Sing., 1. I shall have loved, Plu., 1. We shall have loved, 
'* 2. You will have loved, 44 2. You will have loved, 
" 3. He will have loved ; u 3. They will have loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

102. Present Tense. 
Singular, 1. I may, can, or must love, 

44 2. You may, can, or must love, 

" 3. He may, c?,n, or must love ; 

Plural, 1. We may, can, or must love, 

" 2. You may, can, or must love, 

k4 3. They may, can, or must love. 

103. Imperfect Tense. 

Singular, 1. I might, could, would, or should love, 
" 2. You might, could, w T ould, or should love, 
" 3. He might, could, would, or should love ; 
Plural, 1. We might, could, would, or should love, 
44 2. You might, could, would, or should love, 
44 3. They might, could, would, or should love. 
104 Perfect Tense. 

Singular, 1. I may, can, or must have loved, 
44 2. You may, can, or must have loved, 
" 3. He may, can, or must have loved ; 
Plural, 1. We may, can, or must have loved, 
" 2. You may, can, or must have loved, 
44 3. They may, can, or must have loved. 
10c. Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular, 1. I might, could, would, or should have loved, 
44 2. You might, could, would, or should have loved, 
44 3. He might, could, would, or should have loved ; 
Plural, 1. We might, could, would, or should have loved, 
44 2. You might, could, would, or should have loved, 
44 3. They might, could, would, or should have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

106. Present Tense. 

Sinqular, 1. If I love, Plural, 1. If we love, 

2. If you love, 44 2. If you love, 

3. If he love; " 3. If they love. 



ENGLISH GKAMMAtt. £5 

jo:', Imperfect Tense. 

Singular, 1. If I loved, Plural, 1. If we .loved, 

'" 2. If yon loved, " 2. If you loved, 

44 S. If he loved; " 3. If they loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

lox. Present Tense. 

Singular, 2. Love, love you, or do you love ; 
Plural, 2. Love, love you, or do you love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

109. Present Tense, To love ; 

110. Perfect Tense, To have loved. 

W, PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, • Perfect, Preperfect y 

Loving, Loved, Having Loved. 

SOEE3IN STYEE. 

112. Which of the pronouns are used only in the solemn style 1 

The pronoun thou in the second person singular number, and 
ye in the second person plural. 

1J3. How is the verb varied in the second person singular, in the 
Solemn Style ? 

St or est is added to the verb or to the first auxiliary ; as, Thou 
he&vest ; Thou mays£ have loved. 
114. How is the third person singular of the verb varied 1 

Final s of the verb or the auxiliary, is changed into th or eth ; 
as, He \oveth; He ha^ loved. 
.1 15. What exception to this ? 
The Verb be ; is and was are not varied in this way. 

116. In what writings is this style employed 1 
In the Sacred Scriptures and in Poetry. 

1 17. By what class of people is it still used ? 
The society of Friends, or Quakers. 

Conjugate the Verb Love, in the Solemn Style? 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



118. Present Tense. 




Singular, 1. I love, Plural 


, 1. We love, 


K *• 2. Thou lovest, " 


2. Ye love, 


" 3. Heloveth; " 


3. They love, 


110. Or, ^emphatic.) 




Singular, 1. I do love, Plural, 


1. We do love, 


i4 2. Thou dost love, " 


2. Ye do love, 


3. He doth love; " 


3. They do love. 


120. Imperfect Tense. 




Singular, 1. I loved, Plural, 


1. We loved, 


2. Thoulovedst, 


2. Ye loved, 


" 3. He loved ; " 


3. They loved. 



26 ETYMOLOGY. 

121. Or, (emphatic.) 

Singular, 1. I did love, Plural, 1. We did love, 

" 2. Thou didst love, " 2. Ye did love, 

" 3. He did love ; " 3. They did love. 

122. Perfect Tense. 

Singular, 1. I have loved, Plural, 1. We have loved, 

" 2. Thou hast loved, " 2. Ye have loved, 

" 3. He hath loved ; " 3. They have loved. 

For the remainder it will be sufficient to give the second person 
singular, according to the following Synopsis : 
123. ' Pluperfect Tense, 2. Thou hadst loved ; 

124. First Future Tense, 2. Thou shalt or wilt love ; 

125. Second Future Tense, 2. Thou shalt have ; or wilt have loved. 

POTENTIAL. MOOD. 

126. Present Tense, 2. Thou mayst, (canst or must,) love ; 

127. Imperfect Tense, 2. Thou mightst love ; 

128. Perfect Tense, 2. Thou mayst have loved ; 

129. Pluperfect Tense, 2. Thou mightst have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

130. Present Tense, 2. If thou love, or If thou do love ; 

131. Imperfect Tense, 2. If thou loved, or If thou did love. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

132. Present Tense, 2. Love, love thou, or do thou love. 

The irregular active transitive Verb SEE may be conjugated in like 
manner front the following Synopsis : 

Principal Paris, See, saw, seeing, seen. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 1. I see, 2. You see, <fcc; 

Imperfect Tense , 1. I saw ; 

Perfect Tense, 1. I have seen ; 

Pluperfect Tense, 1. I had seen; 

First Future Tense, 1. I shall or will see ; 

Second Future Tense, 1. I shall have seen. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense, 1. I may see ; 

Imperfect Tense, 1. I might see ; 

Perfect Tense, 1 . I may have seen ; 

Pluperfect Tense, 1. I might have seen. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 1. If I see; 

Imperfect Tense, 1. If I saw. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 2. See, See you, or Do you see. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, To see ; 

Perfect Tense, To have seen. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Seeing; Perfect, Seen ; Preperfect, Having seen. 
Conjugation of the Irregular Neuter Verb Be. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, Be ; Preterit, Was ; Imperfect Participle, Being ; Per- 
fect Participle, Been. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Present Tense. 




Singular, 1. I am, Plural, 
" 2. You are, " 
3. He is; 


1. We are, 

2. You are, 

3. They are. 


Imperfect Tense. 
Singular, 1. I was, Plural, 
44 2. You were, " 
11 3. He was; " 


1. We were, 

2. You were, 

3. They were. 


Perfect Tense. 
Singular, 1. I have been, Plural, 1. 
14 2. You have been, " 2. 


We have been, 
You have been, 



3. He has been ; "3. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular, 1. I had been, Plural, 1. We had been, 

" 2. You had been, " 2. You had been, 

44 3. He had been; " 3. They had been. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular, 1. I shall or will be, Plural, 1 We shall or will be, 
44 2. You shall or will be, " 2. You shall or will be, 
" 3. He shall or will be, " 3. They shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular, 1. I shall have been, Plural, 1. We shall have been, 
i4 2. You will have been, " 2. You will have been, 
44 3. He will have been ; u 3. They will have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular, 1. I may (can or must) be, Plural, 1. We may be, 
44 2. You may be, 4 * 2. You may be, 

44 3. He may be ; 44 3. They may be. 

Imperfect Toise. 
Singular, 1. I might be, Plural, 1. We might be, 
44 2. You might be, 44 2. You might be, 
44 3. He might be ; " 3. They might be. 
Perfect Tense. 
Singular, 1. I may have been, Plural, 1. We may have been, 
* 4 2. You may have been, 44 2. You may have been, 
44 2. He may have been ; 44 3. They may have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Sing., 1. 1 might have been, ' Plu., 1. We might have been, 
44 2. You might have been, 44 2. You might have been, 
44 3. He might have been ; 44 3. They might have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular, 1. If I be, Plural, 1. If we be, 

44 2. If you be, 44 2. If you be, 

44 3. If he be; 44 3. Ifthevbe. 



*® ETYMOLOGY. 



Imperfect Tense. 
Singular, 1. If I were, Plural, 1. If we were, 

2. If you were, « 2. If you were, 

3, If he were. " 3. If they were. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. 2. Be, be you, or do you be ; Phi. 2. Be, be you, or do you be. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, To be ; 
Perfect Tense, To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Being ; Perfect, Been ; Preperfeet, Having been. 

THE SOLEMN STYLE. 

o^J e I h Be ? la ^ be conjugated in the Solemn Stvle from the nre- 
pfuraf. "Su/b^f KSf* 11 ?!* 111 ?, V e S? r you in ^ e second pei?s on 
perfect ten^ ^ FJw?& ha * bee i 1 ln the . third P erson singular of the 
penect tense , and, for the second person singular, the following 

synopsis : 
Tifnn ''^^^^ :-Thou art; Thou wast, (or wert); Thou hast been- 
Thou hadst been ; Thou shalt or wilt be- Thou sialt or wi t Svo 
5? ei \ Z otent ™ 1 Mood :-Thou mavst be^' Thou mi-htst oe U Thou 
hou^e h Tf e thmfwUJ 1 ?° U mi f! ltS ^ have'been^^S, 13 tfood?-l\ 
t'lou be. ' ' ( Wert) " Im P erative Mood :-Be, be thou, or do 

COMPOUND, OR PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

How is the verb conjugated in the Compound Form? 
u The verb is conjugated in the Compound Form by adding its 
imperfect participle to the newter verb Be, through all its changes. 

What peculiar meaning does this form of the verb convey ? 

It expresses the action or being as progressing or goino- on at 
the time referred to ; as, John was writing when I saw him • 
Ellen is seiomg. - ' 

What verbs admit of this form ? 

Most active and neuter verbs. 

Conjugation of the verb Write in the Compound Form. 

^u™Xi V »u Writ * ^ iay £ e - c ^ n J u ^tecl in the Compound Fx)rm by 
»l^?i theimp ^ rfec ^^^ to tne variations of the verb 

Be in the preceding conjugation; as, I am writing, You are writin- 
He is writing ; We are writing, &c. wiiim , 

synopsis— First Person, Singular. 

T itidtexfoK Mood:— I am writing; I was writing; I have been writing • 

beerfw?m n r g; * ShaU ° r *** he writin ^ * ^all (ofwiYl/ haf e 

Potential Mood :- I may be writing; I might be writing • I miv have 

been writing ; I might have been writing te ' y 

Subjunctive Mood:— If I be writing ; If I 'were writing 
be witfng? Mood: ~^' P er son,) Be writing, be you writing, or do you 

Infinitive 3Iood:— To be writing; To have been writing: 
writing? les: ~ Im ^ er f e ^ Bei "S writing; Preperfeet, Having been 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 29 

THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

How is the Passive Verb formed 1 

The Passive Verb is formed by adding the perfect participle of 
a transitive verb to the verb Be through all its changes. 

Conjugation of the Verb Love in the Passive Voice, 

The verb love may be conjugated in the Passive Voice by adding the 
perfect participle, Loved, to the verb Be in the preceeding conjugation. 

SYNOPSIS. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, I am loved, You are loved, <fec. 

Imperfect Tense, I was loved ; 

Perfect Tense, I have been loved ; 

Pluperfect Tense, I had been loved ; 
First Future Tense, I shall or will be loved ; 
Second Future Tense, I shall have been loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense, I may be loved ; 

Imperfect Tense, I might be lovea ; 

Perfect Tense, I may have been loved ; 

Pluperfect Tense, I might have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, If I be loved ; 

Imperfect Tense, If I were loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, (2d. person,) Be loved, be you loved, or do you be loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, To be loved ; 

Perfect Tense, To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Being loved ; Perfect, Loved ; Preperfect t Having been loved . 

THE NEGATIVE FORM. 

What is the Negative Form of a verb 1 

The Negative Form of a verb is that which expresses negation 
or denial ; as, He does not love. 

How is the verb conjugated negatively 1 

A verb is conjugated negatively by, placing the adverb not 
after the verb or after the first auxiliary ; but in the infinitive 
mood and in the participles the negative is placed first. 

SYNOPSIS 

Of the verb Love conjugated negatively : 

Indicative Mood:— I love not, or I do not love ; I loved not, or I did 
not love ; I have not loved ; I had not loved ; I shall not love ; I shall 
not have loved. 

Potential Mood :—I may not love ; I might not love ; I may not have 
loved ; I might not have loved. 

Subjunctive Mood:— If I love not, or if I do not love ; If I loved not, or 
if I did not love. 

Imperative Mood :—{ 2d. person,) Love not, love you not, or do you 
not love, 

Infinitive Mood:— Not to love ; Not to have loved. 

Participles .-—Imperfect, Not loving ; Preperfect, Not having loved. 

Passive Voice :— I am not loved ; I was not loved; I have not been 
loved; &c. 



30 ETYMOLOGf. 

INTERROGATIVE FORA' ; 

How is a verb conjugated interrogatively ? 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively in the Indicative and 
Potential Moods, by placing the nominative after the verb, or 
after the first auxiliary. 

SYNOPSIS 

Of the Verb Love conjugated interrogatively : 

Indicative Mood .—Do I love ? Did I love ? Have I loved ? Had I loved ? 
Shall 1 love ? Shall I have loved ] 

Potential Mood .—May I love 1 Might I love ? May I have loved ? 
Might I have loved ? 

Passive Voice :— Ind.— Am I loved ) Was I loved ? Have I been loved ? 
Had I been loved ? Shall I be loved ? Shall I have been loved ? Pot.— 
May 1 be loved? Might I be loved ? May I have been loved] Might I 
have been loved ? 

Note.— A Verb may be conjugated interrogatively and negatively, 
in the indicative and potential moods, by placing the nominative and 
the adverb no^ after the verb, or after the first auxiliary; as, Love I 
not, or do I not love? Am I not loved? May I not love? May I not be 
loved ? 

PARSING. 

Flowers grow in the meadow. 
Grow is a verb— it expresses action, irregular — it does not form 
the preterit and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present, 
— grow, grew, grown, — active— it expresses the action of its sub- 
ject, intransitive — it does not admit an object after it, in the indic- 
ative mood —it asserts or declares, present tense — it expresses 
what is now taking place, in the third person and plural number 
— to agree with its nominative flowers. 

If Susan icere here to help us, the work might be finished. 

Were is a verb — it expresses being, irregular — it does not form 
the preterit and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the pres- 
ent, — be, was, been, — neuter— it is neither active nor passive, but 
expresses being merely, in the subjunctive mood — it expresses a 
condition, imperfect tense— it expresses indefinite time, in the 
third person and singular number to agree with its nominative 
Susan. 

To help is a verb— it expresses action, regular — it forms the 
preterit and perfect participle by adding ed to the present, — help, 
helped, helped, — active — it expresses the action of its subject, 
transitive — it admits an object after it, in the infinitive mood — it 
is not limited by person and number, and in the present tense — it 
relates to present time. 

Might be finished is a verb — it expresses action, regular — it 
forms the preterit and perfect participle by adding ed to the pres- 
ent, passive— it represents its subject as being affected by the 
action, potential mood — it expresses possibility, imperfect tense — 
it expresses indefinite time, in the third person and singular num- 
ber to agree with its nominative task. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAK. M 

Always hope for the best. 

Hope is a verb — it expresses action, regular — it forms the pre- 
terit and perfect participle by adding d to the present, — hope, 
hoped, hoped, — active — it expresses the action of its subject, in- 
transitive — it does not admit an object after it, in the imperative 
mood — it expresses command or exhortation, present tense — it 
expresses present time, in the second person, and it may be either 
singular or plural number — to agree with its subject thou or you 
understood. 

I saw Willie chasing a butterfly. 

Chasing is a participle — it is a form of the verb with the prop- 
erties of an adjective, imperfect — it expresses a continuance of the 
action at the time referred to ; it is from the verb chase — chase, 
chased, chasing, chased, — and it relates to Willie as its subject. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Charles loves Edwin. Sarah lost her book. We will walk 
They will come. I am cold. You have been idle. Lucy is sick. 
We shall have finished our task. John has come. The Sun is 
setting. A naughty boy broke the window. Cain killed Abel. 
You may go. Peter, study your lesson. The fire destroyed 
many beautiful pictures. We might have been disappointed. 
The greatest forces make the least noise. Ida ought to study 
grammar. The wind had shaken the trees. Children, obey your 
parents. Is she happy ? Will they come ? 



ADVERBS. 

1. What is an Adverb ] 

An Adverb is a word used to qualify or vary the meaning of a 
verb, a participle, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, John 
studies well ; The lesson is very short. 

2. In the sentence "William is writing carelessly,"— which word is 
an Adverb? 

The word carelessly. 

3. What is the use of the Adverb here ? 

To tell in what manner William is writing. 

4. What kind of an Adverb then may we call ii ? 
An Adverb of Manner. 

5. "John came yesterday,*'— what is the use of the Adverb 

yesterday ? 

It tells the time when John came. 

6. What kind of an Adverb is yesterday ? 
An Adverb of Time. 

7. "Thou shalt surely die,'"— what does surely express? 
Affirmation. 



oZ ETYMOLOGY. 

8. "He will hot come,'*— what does the adverb not express ? 
Negation. 

9. Will you name a few Adverbs of Manner ? 
Wisely, foolishly, carelessly, slowly, well, ill. 

10. How are many Adverbs of Manner formed 1 
By adding ly to adjectives. 

11. Name some Adverbs of Affirmation ? 
Verily, truly, certainly, yes. 

12. Of Negation ] Not, no. 

13. Of Doubt ? Perhaps, peradventure, psrctian ?e. 

14. t)f Order 1 First, secondly, thirdly. 

15. Of Place] Here, there, where, whence, whither. 
it). Of Time Present ] Now, to-day. 

17. Of Time Past ] Already, yesterday. 

18. Of Time to Come? Hereafter, soon. 

1M. Of Time Indefinite 1 Often, seldom, sometimes. 

20. Of Interrogation 1 How ? why 1 where ? whence ? 

21. What modifications have Adverbs r t 

Some Adverbs are compared like adjectives. 

22. Name some Adverbs that are compared by the terminations er 

and est. 

Soon, late, fast, often, long. 

23. How are most Adverbs of Manner compared 1 
By the adverbs more and most. 

24. Name some Adverbs that are compared irregularly '? 

Well, better, best ; badly, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; 
much, more, most ; far, farther, farthest. 



The apples are not quite ripe. 

Not is an adverb — a word used to qualify or vary the meaning 
of a verb, a participle, an adjective, or another adverb; and it 
qualifies the verb are. 

Quite is an adverb — a word &c. ; and it qualifies the adjective 
ripe. 

Helen studies her lessons well. 

Well is an adverb — a word &c. ; it may be compared— well, 
better, best ; it is in the positive degree, and qualifies the verb 
studies. 

(Parse all, the words in the following sentences:) 

The water is very deep. The bird sings sweetly. Winter will 
soon be here. The copy is badly written. Jane abused her 
little sister most shamefully. James has found the letter which 
he lost yesterday. Do not tear your books, Henry was writing 
carelessly. I was there when he came. We can not wait Who 
goes there ? Where is Clara's book ? My watch is too fast. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. .Jo 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

J. What is a Conj unction ? 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or 
sentences. 

2. What is a Sentence ? 

A Sentence is the complete expression of a thought or com- 
mand by words. 

8. What must every Sentence contain } 

Every Sentence must contain a subject and a finite verb. 

4. What is a Phrase 1 

A Phrase is several words taken together, but not forming a 
complete Sentence. 

5. When may words and phrases be connected by conjunctions ? 
When they are in the same construction. 

6. John and William study their lessons,— which words are con- 
nected ? 

John and William. 

7. Why are the nouns John and William in the same construction ? 
Because they are subjects of the same verb. 

8. What part of speech is and, and why ? 

And is a conjunction — because it connects words in the same 
construction. 

9. The book is in the desk or on the table, — what does the conjunc- 
tion or connect ? 

The two phrases — in the desk, and on the table. 

10. Why are these phrases in the same construction ? 
Because they have the same relation to the noun book. 

11. Howard is industrious, but Walter is lazy, — what does the con- 
junction but connect ? 

The two sentences — Howard is industrious, and Walter is lazy. 

12. Into what two general classes are Conjunctions divided ? 
Into Copulative and Disjunctive. 

13. What is a Copulative Conjunction ? 

A Copulative Conjunction is one that denotes an addition, 
cause, purpose, or condition. 

11. Name the Copulative Conjunctions? 

And, as, also, both, because, even, for, if. seeing, since, so, thai, 
then, therefore, wherefore. 

15. What is a Disjunctive Conjunction 1 

A Disjunctive Conjunction is one that denotes opposition, com- 
parison, or restriction. 

16. Which are the Disjunctive Conjunctions ? 

Although, but, either, else, lest, neither, nevertheless, nor, not- 
withstanding, or, otherwise, than, though, unless, whereas, ichether, 
yet. 



04 &m£OLGG¥. 

17. What are Corresponsive Conjunctions 1 

Corresponsive Conjunctions are those which are used in pairs, 
so that the one corresponds to the other ; as, Both William and 
Henry are in fault ; "John came neither eating nor drinking." 

18. When Corresponsive Conjunctions are used, which of the two is 
the connecting word ] 

The second. 

19. How should the first be parsed ? 

As a Corresponsive relating to the other. 
:0. Waich are the Corresponsive Conjunctions! 
Although — yet ; as — so ; both — and ; either—or ; if— then ; 
neither — nor ; though — yet ; whether — or. 

21. When a Conjunction consists of two or more words, what may it 
be called ? 

A Complex Conjunction. 

22. Which are the Complex Conjunctions'? 

As if, as well as, but that, except that, even if, even though, for- 
asmuch as, inasmuch as, seeing that, provided that, for that. 

PARSING. 

Sarah and Ellen are in the room. 

And is a conjunction— a word used to connect words, phrases, or 
sentences ; copulative — it expresses addition ; and it connects the two 
names Sarah and Ellen. 

He spoke as if he were in a passion. 

As if is a conjunction— a word used to connect words, phrases, or 
sentences ; complex — it consists of more than one word ; copulative 
— it expresses condition ; and connects the two clauses "He spoke" 
and "He were in a passion." 

Neither the virtuous nor the vicious are free from trials. 

Neither is a corresponsive conjunction, and corresponds to nor. 

Nor is a conj unction — a word used &c. ; disjunetive it expresses op- 
position of meaning ; and it connects the phrases "the Virtuous" and 
"the Vicious." 

exercises— Parse all the words. 
Thomas writes and ciphers. James or Henry will come. I 
found a large pear and a small apple. The farmer sells wheat, 
oats, and corn. John came neither eating nor drinking. He 
would go if he were invited. Sit down, and rest yourself James 
is idle as well as Thomas. The lightning struck a tree and killed 
a man. Sloth consumes faster than labor wears. We must stud} r 
i* we wish to improve. Steel is harder than iron. You have 
done the mischief, but I bear the blame. A house and a barn 
were destroyed. Come, and see my new book. Although he 
reproves me, yet I esteem him. The largest trees sometimes bear 
the smallest fruit. When the work is completed, I will come. — 
The Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument cost ten thousand Dollars. 
Peter's father and mother, are dead. When Cassar had conquer- 
ed the Gauls, he sought to subdue his native countiy. 



EN GUSH GRAMMAR. 30 

VKKPOSITIOSS. 

1 . What is the 1 n ea ning of P reposition ? 

Placed before. 

2. What is a Preposition ? 

A Preposition is a word which is generally placed before a 
noun or pronoun to show its relation to some preceding word ; 
as, "I saw a star Ml from heaven." 

3. The snow on the roof is melting,— what office does the word on 
perform ? 

It is placed before the noun roof and shows the relation 
between the preceding word mow and roof. 

4. He broke through the ice,— which word is a preposition— and 
what is its use ? 

Through is a preposition, and it shows the relation between the 
verb, broke, and the noun, ice. 

5. The horse is in the stable. G. The Sun is the light of the world. 
7. in union there is strength. 8. He fell into the water. 9, Here is 
an apple for yon. 10. We could not live without water. 11. The tree 
i s sh a ken by the wind . 

LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Abaft, aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, 
amidst, among, amongst, around, at, athwart, — bating, before, 
behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, betioeen, betwixt, beyond, but, 
by, — concerning,— despite, down, during, — ere, except, excepting, — 
for, from, — in, inside, into, — maugre, minus {?), — near, nigh, not- 
withstanding, — of, off, on, out of, outside, over, — past, pending, 
per, plus, — regarding, respecting, round, — sans, since, — through, 
throughout, till, to, touching, toward, toicards, — under, under- 
neath, until, unto, up, upon,— versus, via, — with, within, without. 

PARSING. 

James walked from Annville to Lebanon. 
From is a preposition — a word placed before a noun or pronoun to 
show its relation to a preceding word ; and it shows the relation be- 
tween the verb walked, and the noun Annville. 

To is a preposition— a word placed <fcc— and it shows the relation be- 
tween the verb walked and the noun Lebanon. 
In union there is strength. 

In is a preposition— a word placed &c— and it shows the relation be- 
tween the noun strength, and the noun union. 

Eagles build their nests on rocks and in trees. A house in 
Cornwall was destroyed by fire. A walk in the woods is delight- 
ful. I love to hear the song of birds. The boy who struck his 
teacher has been expelled from school. John Smith sold his 
house in town, and bought a farm in the country. The task is 
easy, and we can finish it before night. In the beginning God 
created the heaven and the earth. The days are longer in summer 
than in winter. The ice broke and he fell* into the water. Few 
perish with hunger ; but thousands die of surfeit. 



3-6 SYNTAX. 

, , INTERJECTIONS. 

1. What is the meaning of Interjection ? 
Thrown between. 

2. What is an Interjection 1 

An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate 
some strong or sudden emotion of the mind; as, Oh! alas! 
pshaw ! husli ! 

3. What words may be used as Interjections ? 

Any word that expresses strong or sudden feeling — uncon 
nected with any other word ; as, What! you here ? 

PARSING. 

Hush ! some one is coming. 
Hush is an Interjection— a word uttered to indicate strong or sudden 
emotion. 

I will go, but alas ! I fear it is too late. See ! the glorious sun 
is setting. Hark ! I hear a voice. Be merciful unto me, ! 
God. Well done, good and faithful servant ! Hurrah ! The field 
is won. 



SYNTAX. 

1 . Of wh at d oes Sy n tax tie it ? 

Syntax treats of the construction of Sentences. 

2. What is a Sentence ? 

A Sentence is the complete expression of a thought or com- 
mand by w T ords. 

3. What must every Sentence contain ? 

Every Sentence must contain a subject and a finite verb ex- 
pressed or understood. 

4. How may Sentences he divided according to their use] 

Into four classes • — Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and 
Exclamatory. 

5. What is a Declarative Sentence ] 

A Declarative Sentence is one in which something is affirmed 
or denied ; as, Truth is mighty ; Labor does not injure us. 

G. What is an Interrogative Sentence ? 

An Interrogative Sentence is one which asks a question ; as, 
Will he come ? Is it right ? 

7. What is an Imperative Sentence 1 

An Imperative Sentence is one which has its Yerb in the Im- 
perative Mood. 

8. What is an Exclamatory Sentence ? 

An Exclamatory Sentence is one used in exclamation, or to ex- 
press strong emotion ; as, "How are the mighty fallen r 



SeNGUSlt GRAMMA*. 3"? 

9. How may Sentences be divided according to their form ^ 
Into three kinds :— Simple, Compound, and Complex. 

10. What is a Simple Sentence ? 

A Simple Sentence consists of a single assertion, question, com- 
mand, or exclamation. 

11. Which are the principal parts of a Simple Sentence ? 

The subject or nominative, the attribute or finite verb, and the 
object after the verb, (when it is transitive). 

12. What are the other parts of a sentence called ? 
Primary or Secondary Adjuncts. 

13. What is a Primary Adjunct 1 

A Primary Adjunct is a word or phrase used to modify one of 
the principal parts. 

14. What is a Secondary Adjunct 1 
An Adjunct of an Adjunct. 

15. What is a Compound Sentence ? 

A Compound Sentence consists of two or more simple sentences 
connected together. 

16. What are the divisions of a Compound Sentence called 1 
Members. 

17. What is a Complex Sentence ? 

A Complex Sentence consists of two simple sentences, one of 
which is dependent on the other. 

18. What are the Divisions of a Complex Sentence called 1 
Leading and Dependent Clauses. 

19. What is the use of the Dependent Clause ? 

It generally modifies one of the principal parts of the Leading 
Clause. 
23. How may clauses be connected? 

Clauses may be connected by a conjunction, by a conjunctive 
adverb or by a relative pronoun. 

EXAMPLES. 

The worst crimes do not always receive the most severe punishment. 

This is a sentence ; it is the complete expression of a thought with 
words; declarative— it expresses a denial. The principal parts are 
the subject— crimes, the attribute — do receive — and the object punish- 
ment. The primary adjuncts are The worst— of the subject, always— of 
the attribute, and the severe of the object. The adverbs not and most 
are secondary adjuncts. 

I will go, if you will accompany me. 

This is a complex sentence— it consists of two sentences one of 
which— "If you will accompany me"— is dependent on the other. The 
leading clause is "I will go" ; and the dependent clause "you will ac- 
company me" ; The clauses are connected by the conjunction if. 

Both clauses may be analyzed as in the preceding example. 
Deep rivers move with silent majesty, but small brooks are noisy. 

This is a compound sentence— it consists of two simple sentence** 



m syntax! 

connected together. The members are "Deep rivers move with* §iient 
majesty' 7 and "small brooks are noisy," and they are coaneeted by 
the conjunction but. 

In the first member, the phrase "with silent majesty" may be taken 
together as an adjunct of the attribute move ; or the word 'silent may 
be considered separately as a secondary adjunct. 

(Analyze the following sentences:) 
The boys are writing carelessly. John lost his shoe in the 
mud. The smoke rises in the air. The stream, swelled by the 
rains, overflowed its banks. The wind shakes the trees, and the 
apples fall to the ground. You must stay in the house until I 
return from market. The cattle jumped from the yard into the 
road. If I were to go, he would not follow. The knife which I 
fonnd was broken. He made a fortune by selling oranges. Have 
you studied your lesson ? How soon the flowers fade ! The 
great waves dashed over the ship, and threatened to overwhelm it, 

RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Rule 1. Articles relate to the nouns which they limit. 

Rule 2. A Noun or a Pronoun which j s the subject of a finite 
verb, must be in the nominative case. 

Rule 3. A Noun or a Personal Pronoun used to explain or 
limit a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the 
same case. 

Rule 4. Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns. 

Rule 5. A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the 
noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number and 
gender. 

Rule 6. When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying 
the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in the plural 
number. 

Rule 7. Yv r hen a Pronoun has two or more antecedents con- 
nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural number. 

Rule 8. When a Pronoun has two or more singular antece- 
dents connected by or or nor, it must agree v\ith them in the 
singular number. 

Rule 9. A Finite Verb must agree with its subject, or nomi- 
native in person and number. 

Rule 10. -When the nominative is a collective noun convey- 
ing the idea of plurality, the Yerb must agree with it in the plural 
number. 

Rule 11. When a Yerb has two or more nominatives con- 
nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural number. 

Rule 12. When a Yerb has two or more singular nominatives 
connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the singular 
number. 



ENGLISH 8RAMMAK, W 

Rule 13. Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, like adjec- 
tives, or are governed like nouns by verbs or prepositions. 

Rule 14. Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or 
other adverbs. 

Rule 15. Conjunctions connect either words, phrases, or 
sentences. 

Rule 16. Prepositions show the relations of things. 

Rule 17. Interjections have no grammatical dependence. 

Rule 18. A Noun or a Pronoun in the Possessive case, is 
governed by the name of the thing possessed. 

Rule 19. Active Transitive Verbs and their Active Participles 
govern the objective case. 

Rule 20. Active Intransitive, Passive, and Neuter Verbs, and 
their Participles, take the same case after as before them, when 
both words refer to the same thing. 

Rule 21. Prepositions govern the objective case. 

Rule 22. A Verb in the infinitive mood is governed by the 
word on which the mood depends. 

Rule 23. A Noun or a Pronoun is put in the Nominative 
case absolute, when its case depends on no other word. 



ARTICLES. 

1. What exception is there to Rule 1st ? 

The indefinite article is sometimes joined to an adjective of 
number, to give it a collective meaning: as, A few names ; A 
thousand men. 

2. How is the Definite Article sometimes employed ? 

The Definite Article is sometimes joined to an adverb ; as, The 
sooner it is done, the better. 

3. How should the Article be parsed, in such cases ? 

The Article and the adverb should be parsed together as an 
adverbial phrase. 

NOUNS AND PKONOUXS. 

4. What is a Collective Noun ? 

A Collective Noun is one which, in the singular number con- 
veys the idea of many ; as, people, army, majority, multitude. 

5. What is a Complex Noun ] 

A Complex Noun is one which is composed of two or more 
separate words ; as, William Cullen Bryant ; Nick of the Woods; 
The Prince of Wales. 

6. What is meant by Apposition in grammar ? 



40 mrvAit. 

Apposition is the putting of nouns or pronouns in the same 
case. 

7. When is a noun or pronoun in Apposition with another 1 

A noun or pronoun is in Apposition with an other noun or - 
pronoun, when it is put in the same case with the other, for ex- 
planation or emphasis ; as, Paul, an Apostle of Jesus Christ ; I, 
John, saw it ; u The Spring has come again, the joyful Spring." 

8. In how many eases is the noun put in the nominative case 
Absolute 1 

In four cases :— I. When it is the name of the person or thing- 
addressed ; as, John, come to me ; Thou, God, seest me. 

II. With a participle, and having no grammatical dependence 
on the rest of the sentence ; as, The night being dark, we could 
not proceed. 

III. By pleonasm ; as, "My doio,— Alas ! I had forgotten ft." 
"And /,— whither shall I go ?" 

IV. When the word is merely mentioned ; as, Henry the 
Eighth ; Home, how sweet the sound. 

9. What other words are sometimes used for nouns ? 

A Verb in the Infinitive Mood, a Phrase, a Clause, or a Sen- 
tence ; may be used as a noun ; as, "To err is human." To be 
good is to be happy." "That you have returned, is some 
consolation." 

10. How is the pronoun it sometimes used 1 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes applied to young children 
or small animals ; as, The babe in its cradle. It is also used 
sometimes as a mere expletive, without reference to any antece- 
dent ; as, It rains ; It is too late. 

VERBS AND PARTICIPLES. 

11. Of what person is the verb in the Imperative Mood \ 

A verb in the imperative mood is usually in the second person ; 
but sometimes it is of the first or the third person ; as, "Cursed 
be IP ' "Thy will be done. ' ' 

12. What is the sign of the infinitive mood ; 
The word to ; as, I am anxious to hear. 

13. What verbs take the infinitive after them without the word to f 

The active verbs bid, dare, feel, let, make, need, and see, and 
their participles, generally take the infinitive without the word to ; 
as, Let me go, for Let me to go ; I saw it move, for I saw it to 
move. 

14. How is the participle generally construed 1 

The Participle generally relates to a noun or pronoun as its 
subject ; as, I saw a man leading a horse. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 41 

25. What is the subject of a passive participle 1 

The person or thing affected by the action expressed or implied 
in the participle ; as, "A house divided against itself can not 
stand.' ' 

16. When the participle does not relate to a subject how is it 
governed ? 

It is generally governed by a preposition ; as, We can not raise 
ourselves by defaming others ; but it is sometimes governed by a 
Verb ; as, She has quit reading novels. 

ADVERBIAL PHRASES, 

17. What is an Adverbial Phrase 7 

When two or more words taken together perform the office of 
an adverb, they form an adverbial phrase ; as, a few days ago, 
in vain, time and again. 

18. When should such expressions be parsed as Adverbial Phrases ? 
Only when they can not be parsed separately, and make the 

same sense. 

19. What other expressions are considered by some grammarians as 
Adverbial Phrases ? 

Phrases expressing quantity, extent, or distance ; as, The wall 
is six feet high. 

20. Wh at Adverbs form exceptions to the Rule ? 

The Adverbs yes, yea, no, nay, amen, and some others, are, 
sometimes used independently ; and sometimes stand for a whole 
sentence ; as, "Is this true ?" "JVtf," i- e. "It is not true." 

21 . What other parts of speech do adverbs sometimes represent ? 
An Adverb is sometimes used for a verb in the imperative 

mood ; as, "Away with him !" 

SAME CASES. 

22. When a vjrb has the same case before and after it, what is th# 
usual arrangement of the words t 

The leading word generally precedes the verb, and the explan- 
atory word follows it ; as, He was named John. But sometimes 
the order is reversed ; as, Who art thou ? Here thou is the sub- 
ject, and who must be parsed as the nominative after the verb, 
according to the sense. 

23. What is Ellipsis in Grammar ? 

Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to complete the con- 
struction, but not necessary to convey the sense. 

24. What words must be supplied in parsing ? 

All words omitted by Ellipsis, that are needed to complete the 
construction or government. 

EXAMPLES OF ELLIPSIS. 

Bring (to' me a pen. He will come if he can (come). He said (that) 
he would come. She went (to her) home. The first lesson was diffi- 
cult, but the second (lesson) is easy. I love (him) and (I) fear him. 
Who broke the slate 1 I (broke the slate). John, (and) James* and 
Joseph are here. We lived there (for, or during) twenty years. My 



48 SYNTAX. 

horse travela ftistey than his (horse travels). The book (which) yoii 
gave (to) me, is lost. Mankind's esteem they court, and he (courts) 
nis own (esteem). 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Were death denied, all men would wish to die. 

Analysis. This is a Complex sentence ; the leading clause is, "ail 
men would wish to die;" the dependent clause, "were death denied." 
The clauses are connected by the conjunction if understood. The sub- 
ject of the leading clause is "men;" the attribute, "would wish;' 
"all" is an adjunct of the subject men and "to die" is an adjunct of the 
attribute would wish, &c. . 

Parsing.— Were denied is a regular passive verb,— deny, denied, 
denied ;— in the subjunctive mood, imperfect tense; and in the third 
person singular number, to agree with its nominative death; accord- 
ing to Rule 9th. A finite verb must agree ivithits subject, or nominative in 
person and number. 

Death is a common noun, of the neuter gender, third person, singu- 
lar number, and in the nominative case to the verb were denied.— 
According to Rule 2d. 

AH is a pronominal adjective, and relates to men. According to 
Rule 4th. 

Men is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, mascu- 
line gender, and in the nominative case to the verb would wish.— 
According to Rule 2d. 

Would wish is a regular, active, intransitive verb,— wish, wished, 
wished ;— in the potential mood, imperfect tense ; in the third person 
and plural number, to agree with its nominative men. According to 
Rule 9th. 

To die is a regular, active, intransitive verb; in the infinitive mood, 
present tense; and depends on the verb would wish. According to 
Rule22d. 

That we must die, is certain. 

"That we must die'' is a clause used as a noun ; in the neuter gender, 
third person, singular number, and in the nominative case to the verb 
is. According to Rule 2d. 

Is is an irregular, neuter verb ;— be, was, been ;— in the indicative 
mood, present tense; in the third person, singular number, to agree 
with its nominative that ice must die. According to Rule 9th. 

Certain is a common adjective; in the positive degree ; and relates to 
the clause — That we must die. According to Rule^4th. 
The knife is ivorth a dollar. 

Worth is a preposition, and shows the relation between the noun 
knife and the noun dollar. According to Rule 16th. 

The man being a stranger, we did not trust him. 

Man is a common noun, of the masculine ginder, third person, sin- 
gular number ; and in the nominative case absolute. According to 
Rule 23d. 

Being is an imperfect participle, from the neuter verb be;— be, was, 
being, been ;— and relates to the noun man as its subject. According 
to Rule 18th. 

Stranger is a common noun, of the masculine gender, third person, 
singular number; and in the nominative case after the neuter parti- 
ciple being. According to Rule 20th. 

What he sent, was but a small part of the whole. 

What is a double pronoun— standing for an antecedent and a rela- 
tive—and it is equivalent to that which. It is in the third person, sin- 
gular number, and neuter gender ; as an antecedent, it is in the nomi- 
native case to the verb was. According to Rule 2d ; and as a relative, 
it is in the objective case, and is governed bv the verb sent. According 
to Rule 19th. 



RKGLMH GRAMMAR. 4* 

The man and woman who were tried for murder \ hace been acquitted. 

\) r ho is a relative pronoun, of the common gender, third person, and 
plural number— to agree with its antecedents man and woman.— 
According to Rule 7th; and in the nominative case to were tried.— 
According to Rule 2d. 

Have been acquitted is a regular, passive verb ; in the indicative 
m >o 1, perfect tense ; in the third person, plural number, to agree with 
us nominatives man and woman. According to Rule 11th. 

{Analyze and Parse.) 

An old man may lose all interest in the affairs of the pres- 
ent time, yet he still remembers the events of his childhood. The 
river overflowed its banks and covered the neighboring fields 
with its waters. Sir John Franklin was sent by the British gov- 
ernment to seek a north-west passage to the Pacific ocean; but he 
perished in those regions of intense cold, and was buried in an 
icy sepulcher. Herschell, the astronomer, discovered the planet 
which bears his name. Jerusalem, the capital of Judea, was de- 
stroyed by Titus, the son of Vespasian. You yourself are in 
fault. Decatur destroyed the frigate Philadelphia in the harbor 
of Tripoli. Every society has a right to prescribe for itself the 
terms on which its members shall be admitted. Who can tell 
how many sins he has committed during his life. What I desire 
is, that equal justice be done to all. In our calmer moments, we 
often regret what was said in the heat of passion. The few mo- 
ments that remained to him were spent in making his peace with 
heaven. The English people showed that they were not insensi- 
ble to what was passing in Ireland. The Senate admit no spec- 
tators when they are in executive session. Of the multitude that 
left Egypt, only two reached the land of Canaan. He has lost 
both the pencil and the knife which w r ere given to him. The 
woman and child who remained in the boat were saved. If 
Sarah and I return in time, we will visit you. Snow or ice when 
it melts, absorbs heat and produces cold. Neither John nor 
James has performed his task. I will send Mary or Ellen when 
she comes. The public are often deceived by false appearances 
and extravagant pretensions. The clergy opposed the measure, 
because it proposed to abolish privileges which they had long en- 
joyed. A brace of ducks are worth a dollar. A horse and a dog 
have been known to form a strong attachment to each other. 
Sincerity and truth form the basis of every virtue. Either you 
or I must attend the meeting. Has not sloth, or pride, or ill 
temper, or sinful passion, misled you from the path of sound and 
wise conduct ? The horse, being frightened at the noise, ran 
away, and broke the carriage. The bounty displayed in the 
earth, equals the grandeur manifested in the heavens. A kid, 
standing on the roof of a house, railed at a wolf passing by. 
Having sold his patrimony, he engaged in merchandise. 



44 SYNTAX. 

FALSE SYNTAX, 

John and me went to town. 

This sentence -is not correct because the pronoun me which is a sub- 
ject of the verb went is in the objective case; but, according to Rule 
2d, "A noun or pronoun which is the subject of a verb must be in the 
nominative case." Therefore "me" should be I, and the sentence 
should read— "John and I went to town." 

It was David, him that hilled Goliath. 

Not correct because the pronoun "him" is in the objective case, and 
is put in apposition with the noun "David" which is in the nomina- 
tive case ; but, according to Rule 3d, "A noun &c, Therefore "him" 
should be he. and the sentence should read— "It was David, he that 
killed Goliath." 

There is humor and ivit in all his works. 

Not correct, because tlie verb "is" is in the singular number and 
does not agree with its two nominatives, "humor and wit" which are 
connected by and, but, according to Rule 11th. "When a Verb &c, 
Therefore, "is" should be are, and the sentence should read— "There 
are humor and wit in all his works." 

Between you and I, the fault is our own. 

Not correct, because the pronoun "I" which should be the object 
ol the preposition "between" is in the nominative case: but, accord- 
ing to Rule 21st. "Prepositions govern the objective case." There- 
fore, "I" should be me, and the sentence should be — "Between you 
and me, the fault is our own." 

"Him being condemned, there was no hope for the others." 

Not correct because the pronoun "Him," whose case depends on no 
other word, is in the objective case : but, according to Rule 23d. "A 
Noun &c." Therefore "Him" should be He, and the sentence should 
be — He being condemned, there was no hope for the others. 
Bring me the large and small grammar. 

Not correct because the article is not repeated before the two ad- 
jectives "large" and "small" which refer to different grammars ; but, 
according to Note 2d. "When two or more adjectives &c." There- 
fore, the sentence should be— "Bring me the large and the small 
grammar." 

The iron is a useful metal. 
Not correct because the article "The" is used before the noun 
"iron" which is used in its widest sense : but, according to Note 4. 
I found six pieces, but neither of them would answer. 
Not correct, because the adjective neither is used in reference to 
more than two objects.— Note 15. 

He is the same man who was here before. 
Not correct, because the relative "who" is used after the adjective 
same : but, according to Note 20— clause II, "The relative that should 
be used alter the adjective "same." Therefore, "who" should be 
tlmt, and the sentence should be— "He is the same man that was here 
before." 

I expected to have seen you. 
Not correct, because the verb "to have seen"— which is in the infini- 
tive mood, perfect tense is used after a verb that expresses expecta- 
tion : but, according to Note 35. 

James is not as tall as William. 
Not correct, because the proper corresponsives are not used to deny 
an equality, but, according to Note 49,— they should be so— as, and the 
sentence should be — "James is not so tall as William." 



NOTES FOR THE CORRECTION OF FALSE SYNTAX. 

ARTICLES. 

Note 1.— When the indefinite article is required, a should be used 
before the sound of a consonant, and an before the sound of a vowel ; 
as, a man, an acorn, an hour. 

Exception.— A is used before wlonaj ; and an is used by some write! s 
before polysyllables beginning with h; as, an historical account. 

Note 2.— When two or more adjectives connected by conjunctions, 
relate to different objects— though of the same name— the article must 
be repeated before each of them ; as, The Bible contains the. Old mv\ 
the New Testament. 

Note 3.— When the adjectives connected relate to tho same thug or 
things, the article should not be repeated ; as, He was a great and 
good man. 

Note 4.— A noun used in its widest sense, should not be limited by 
an article ; as, Man is mortal ; Virtue leads to happiness. 

Note 5.— The article should not be used before titles, names, or 
words, used merely as such ; as, He is styled President ; "Boys'* is a 
common noun. 

Note 6.— In expressing a comparison, if both nouns refer to the 
same person or thing, the article should not be repeated ; as, He is a 
better writer than speaker. 

adjectives. 

Note 7. — The pronominal adjectives this and that must be joined to 
nouns of the singular number, and these and those to the plural; as, 
This man, those gloves. 

Note 8.— When the adjective expresses a definite number, the noun 
must be made to agree in number with the adjective ; as, The wall is 
ten feet high. 

Exceptions.— One hundred head of cattle ; A fleet of twenty sail. 

Note 9. — The superlative degree should not be used to expr< jt -s a 
comparison between two ; "The best of the two" is incorrect. 

Note 10.— When the comparative degree is used, the latter term of 
comparison should not include the former. "Man has more wants 
than any creature" is not correct because the term "creature" in- 
cludes man. 

Note 11.— When the superlative degree is used, the latter term of 
comparison should not exclude the former. "God is the wisest of all 
created beings" is not correct because "God" is not a created being. 

Note 12.— Double comparatives or double superlatives should not be 
used. 

Note 13.— In prose, an adjective should not be used for an adverb. 
Note 14.— The pronoun them should not be used as an adjective. 
Note 15.— The pronominal adjectives either, neither, should not be 
used in reference to more than two things. 

PRONOTJXS. 

Note y\.— A pronoun should not be used in the same construction 
with the word or words which it is designed to represent. 

Note 17.— The relative who should be applied only to persons, or to 
animals personified. 

Note 18.— The relative which should be applied to brute animals, and 
things without life. 

Note 19.— A name used merely as a name should be rppresented by 
which. 



46 



SYNTAX. 



Note 20.— The relative that should be used, 

I.— After the superlative degree ; 

II.— After the adjective same; 

III. — After who used interrogatively ; 

IV. — After joint antecedents including persons and things: 

V.— After an unlimited antecedent ; 

VI.— After the pronoun it used indefinitely. 
Note 21. — To prevent smbiguity the relative should be placed as 
near as possible to the antecedent.' 

Note 22.— The pronoun what should not be used instead of the con- 
junction that. 

Note 23.— The pronoun thou, and the plural ye, are not used in ordi- 
nary conversation. 

VERBS. 

Note 24. — The terminations of the verb which belong to the solemn 
style should not be used in ordinary conversation. 

Note 2-5.— A verb which has for its subject an infinitive, a phrase, or 
a sentence, must be in the third person singular. 

Note 26.— When two subjects or antecedents are connected by as 
>veil as, and also, and not, or but not, the verb must agree with the 
former. 

Note 27. — Two or more subjects or antecedents preceded by each, 
every, or no, require a verb or pronoun in the singular number. 

Note 28.— When the nominatives are of different persons or num- 
bers, so as to require different forms of the verb, the verb or its auxil- 
iary must be repeated with each. 

Note 29.— The speaker should generally mention himself last. 

should not be used intransitively. 

Note 31. — Those verbs and participles which do not admit an object, 
should not be used transitively. 

moods and tenses. 

Note 32. — A future contingency should generally be expressed by a 
verb in the subjunctive present. 

Note 33.— The imperfect tense of the subjunctive mood expresses 
indefinite time— and generally implies that the supposition is not 
true. "If John were here" implies that John is not here. 

Note 3:.— The perfect tense should not be used to express action or 
being in time fully past. 

Note 35.— A verb in the potential pluperfect, or in the infinitive per- 
fect should not be made to depend on another verb that expresses 
hope, desire, wish, intention, command, expectation, or permission. 

Note 36.— Propositions that are at all times equally true or false 
s'lould generally be expressed in the present tense. 

participles. 

Noth 37.— A^preposition should not be used after the active partici- 
ple of a transitive verb. 

Note 38. — When the participle is used as a noun, an article or pro- 
nominal adjective is generally required before it and the preposition 
of after it. 

Note 39.— The participle should have a clear relation to its subject. 

Note 40.— The preterit of irregular verbs should not be used for the 
perfect participle, nor the participle for the preterit. 



ENGLISH fcHAM&Aft. 4? 

ADVERBS. 

Note 41.— The adverb is generally placed before the adjective or 
adverb which it qualifies ; and after the verb, (if a single word,) or 
after the first auxiliary. 

Note 42.— When the adverb not qualifies an infinitive it should be 
placed before it. 

Note 43.— Adverbs should not be used as adjectives. 

Note 44.— The adverb no should not be used to qualify a verb or 
participle. 

Note 45.— A negative in English admits but one negative word. 

4®~ But the negative may be emphatically repeated ; as, "Shall never, 
never reach thee more." 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Note 46.— When two terms connected, refer jointly to a third, they 
must be adapted to it, and to each other, both in sense and form. 

Note 47.— After else, other, otherwise, rather, and all comparatives the 
latter term of comparison should be introduced by the conjunction 
than. 

Note 48.— The words hoiv, how that, as, or as how, should not be used 
for the conjunction that. 

Note 49.— Care should be taken to use proper corresponsives, and to 
give them their right place in the sentence. 

List of Corresponsives.— Both— and; Either— or ; Neither— nor ; Net 
, only— but also ; Though— yet ; Whether— or ; As (adv.)— as, with an adjec- 
tive or adverb, to express equality ; As (adv.)— so, with two verbs, to 
express equality, or proportion ; ISO (adv.;— as, to deny an equality, or 
to express a limited comparison ; So (adv.) — that, with a finite verb, to 
express a consequence. 

prepositions. 

Note 50.— In the use of prepositions care should be taken that they 
rightly express the relations intended. 

Note 51.— The preposition should not be omitted, unless usage 
sanctions the omission. 

Note 52.— It is generally inelegant to make a phrase or sentence end 
with a preposition. 

Note 53.— The preposition should not be separated, by an interven- 
ing phrase, from the word which it governs. 

POSSESSIVES. 

Note 54.— In the use of the possessive case, its proper form should be 
observed. 

Note 55.— When two or more nouns in the possessive case are con- 
nected— denoting joint owners of the same thing or things, the sign of 
possession should be added to the last only. 

Note 56.— When two or more nouns in the possessive ca%e are con- 
nected—denoting the owners of different things, though of the same 
name, the sign of possession must be joined to each of them. 

Note 57.— When nouns in apposition are in the possessive case, the 
sign of possession is annexed to that one only which is nearest to the 
governing word expressed or understood. 

Note 5^.— It is sometimes preferable to express the relation of prop- 
erty by the preposition of and the objective ; and both forms may be 
used to avoid a repetition of either. 



48 SYNTAX. 

SENTENCES FOR CORRECTION— ACCORDING TO RULES, 

2. James and me are of the same age. 3. I saw Bryant, lie who wrote 
*<Thanatopsis." 5. She took away the scissors, and has not returned 
it Every one must judge of their own feelings. 6. The minority 
should not be deprived of its rights. 7. Worth and honor should be 
preferred for its own sake. 8. Neither Thomas nor William had 
finished their task. 9. Four years' interest were allowed. The num- 
ber of vessels are unknown. 10. Mankind was not then united in the 
bonds of society. 11. Much does human pride and folly require cor- 
rection. 12. Great gain or loss are likely to result. 19. Thou only 
have I chosen. Who shall we send on this errand. 20. I thought it 
was him. It was not me that did it. 21. I will divide it between you 
and I. 23. Him being absent, the business could not proceed. Him 
that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

SENTENCES FOR CORRECTION— ACCORDING- TO NOTES. 

1 This is an wonderful invention. Envy is the feeling of a ungen- 
erous mind. 2. Ice surrounds the North and South Pole. There is a 
ditference between the old and new method. 3. There is an other and 
a better world. 4. What kind of a bird is that] The iron is a useful 
metal. 5. He deserves the title of a gentleman. 6. Scott is a better 
novelist than a poet. 7. These kind are the best. 8. The wall is ten 
foot high. 9. Of two evils choose the least. 10. Man has more wants 
than any creature. 11. This is the smallest of all the others. 12. This 
was the niost unkindest cut of all. 13. Kate does not write as good as 
Emma. 14. Which of them books would you prefer] 15. Did either 
of the companv stop to assist you] 16. Harry Mitchell his book. 
Many words they darken speech- 17. Our Father, which art in 
heaven IS. Here is a horse who was wounded at Gettysburg. 19. She 
called him Nero— who is another nam e for infamy. 20. He is the same 
man whom we met before. It was not I who gave you the book. 
k >l A man mav have pleasing manners whose morals are bad. 22. I 
did not know but what the story was true. 23. This book is thine. 
Ye have done verv well. I will see thee to-morrow. 24. He hath lost 
his book. Jane lbveth Martha. 25. That they have not done their 
duty, are certain. 2*3. Sarah, as well as her sisters, are to blame. 
*>7 Every man and every woman were numbered. 28. Are they or I 
expected to be present f 29. We will go together, I and he. 30. You 
should not set by the window. We can not permit of such conduct. 
31 Eoypt grows cotton. 32. If he is prudent, he will succeed. 33. If 
Johnwas here, I would go with you. 34. I have finished Virgil last 
w°ek 35 I expected to have seen you before. 36. He said that virtue 
was its own reward. 37. I heard them discussing of the subject. 
38 Kobbing birds' nests may lead to house-breaking. 39. Sailing up 
the river, the whole town may be seen. 40. Mary has broke her slate. 
I seen him yesterday. Having swore falsely, he escaped. 41. YV e 
never are satisfied. 42. To not love our parents is unnatural.— 
13 Such events are of seldom occurrence. 44.1s it true, or no! 45 
He has not found nothing. He never gave nothing to nobody. 4b. 
Mv horse is as good, or wetter than yours. 47. It was no other but 
Henry. I expected something more besides this. 43. He said as how 
it was impossible. 49. Do you think this is so good as that? o). He 
l'ves at Reading. Let us go in the meadow. 51. He is unworthy your 
care 52 That is the plac e I came from .53. The robbers broke into, and 
ulundered the house. 54. Johns' book is torn. Her room is neater 
than yours'. The merchant sells ladys' gloves. 55. That is Johns 
and Mary's task. 56. Get William or John's book. 57. He borrowed 
Martin's; the farmer's horse. 58. I met my wife's sister's husband at 
the depot. The world's government is not left to chance. I saw the 
tracks of the cattle of my neighbor, by the ereek. 



l,H«S,f!. F C °NGRESS 



003 .237 879 ?V 



